viernes, 6 de mayo de 2011
Reformar la Universidad sin copiar a los norteamericanos
La bondad/maldad de las cláusulas anti-OPA
We first establish which external governance provisions entail trade-o¤s: a sub-set of provisions that impose a delay on potential acquirers - "delay provisions" - should have both bargaining benefits and agency costs, while other provisions - "non-delay provisions" - should only have agency costs. This leads to two main comparative static results. First, we predict a larger bargaining effect of delay provisions in concentrated industries. The intuition for this prediction is simple: In concentrated industries, targets are relatively scarce. Thus, a potential acquirer is more concerned about losing synergy opportunities to industry rivals and may be willing to bid more in order to not lose the target. However, in the absence of a credible threat such as delay provisions that afford an industry rival an opportunity to jump in the fray and make a competing bid for the target, the acquirer will not up its bid. Second, we predict that delay and non-delay provisions should have an interaction effect with industry concentration on firm value. Specifically, the valuation effect of delay provisions, while overall ambiguous, should be unambiguously less negative in concentrated industries, and potentially positive if bargaining benefits are sufficiently high. By contrast, the valuation effect of non-delay provisions should be unambiguously negative, and more so in concentrated industries if agency costs are higher.
Proportionality and Principled Balancing, Aharon Barak
foto: Mosaic Magazine
En este breve trabajo, se ocupa del tercer elemento del juicio de proporcionalidad: la proporcionalidad en sentido estricto o ponderación entre la “ganancia” social de conseguir el fin público o el respeto del derecho fundamental y el “coste” para el derecho fundamental limitado por la norma o decisión pública
Claramente, comparar un "beneficio" con una "limitación" es una tarea abrumadora. Cómo se puede comparar el beneficio para la seguridad del Estado con la limitación de la libertad de expresión? Teniendo en cuenta estas dificultades, parece oportuno comenzar aclarando dos extremos: Primero, la comparación no es entre las ventajas obtenidas al realizar el objetivo en conflicto con el efecto provocado por la limitación del derecho. Tampoco es entre la seguridad y la libertad. La comparación es entre el beneficio marginal a la seguridad y el daño marginal al derecho que causa la norma o decisión restrictiva. La comparación se refiere a lo marginal; a lo incremental.
En segundo lugar, debemos preguntarnos si existe una alternativa más proporcionada que logre sólo una parte de los objetivos y sea menos restrictiva del derecho. Si efectivamente existe una alternativa más proporcional, la comparación entre el beneficio marginal y la limitación marginal se realiza teniendo en cuenta y en comparación con la alternativa proporcional...
En un lado de la balanza donde se sitúa el derecho hay que ponderar... la importancia del derecho... (y)... el alcance de su limitación, su intensidad y sus dimensiones. Una limitación de un solo derecho es menos gravoso que la limitación de varios derechos. Una limitación próxima a los márgenes del derecho difiere de una limitación que se afecta a aspectos próximos al núcleo esencial del derecho. Una limitación temporal es menos severa que una permanente. Así, las consecuencias de la limitación de un derecho humano y su efecto en los derechos afectan a la ponderación del derecho mismo.
David Graeber: historia de la deuda
(En Mesopotamia) “most actual acts of everyday buying and selling, particularly those that were not carried out between absolute strangers, appear to have been made on credit. "Ale women", or local innkeepers, served beer, for example, and often rented rooms; customers ran up a tab; normally, the full sum was dispatched at harvest time. Market vendors presumably acted as they do in small−scale markets in Africa, or Central Asia, today, building up lists of trustworthy clients to whom they could extend credit. The habit of money at interest also originates in Sumer −− it remained unknown, for example, in Egypt. Interest rates, fixed at 20 percent, remained stable for 2,000 years”.
“This, however, led to some serious social problems. In years with bad harvests especially, peasants would start becoming hopelessly indebted to the rich, and would have to surrender their farms and, ultimately, family members, in debt bondage. Gradually, this condition seems to have come to a social crisis −− not so much leading to popular uprisings, but to common people abandoning the cities and settled territory entirely and becoming semi−nomadic "bandits" and raiders. It soon became traditional for each new ruler to wipe the slate clean, cancel all debts, and declare a general amnesty or "freedom", so that all bonded labourers could return to their families. (It is significant here that the first word for "freedom" known in any human language, the Sumerian amarga, literally means "return to mother".) Biblical prophets instituted a similar custom, the Jubilee, whereby after seven years all debts were similarly cancelled. This is the direct ancestor of the New Testament notion of "redemption". As economist Michael Hudson has pointed out, it seems one of the misfortunes of world history that the institution of lending money at interest disseminated out of Mesopotamia without, for the most part, being accompanied by its original checks and balances”
“Coinage, certainly, was not invented to facilitate trade (the Phoenicians, consummate traders of the ancient world, were among the last to adopt it). It appears to have been first invented to pay soldiers, probably first of all by rulers of Lydia in Asia Minor to pay their Greek mercenaries. Carthage, another great trading nation, only started minting coins very late, and then explicitly to pay its foreign soldiers”.
“The credit systems of the Near East did not crumble under commercial competition; they were destroyed by Alexander's armies −− armies that required half a ton of silver bullion per day in wages. The mines where the bullion was produced were generally worked by slaves”.
“the creation of new media of exchange −− coinage appeared almost simultaneously in Greece, India, and China −−appears to have had profound intellectual effects. ... The most remarkable pattern, though, is the emergence, in almost the exact times and places where one also sees the early spread of coinage, of what were to become modern world religions: prophetic Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Taoism, and eventually, Islam. While the precise links are yet to be fully explored, in certain ways, these religions appear to have arisen in direct reaction to the logic of the market. To put the matter somewhat crudely: if one relegates a certain social space simply to the selfish acquisition of material things, it is almost inevitable that soon someone else will come to set aside another domain in which to preach that, from the perspective of ultimate values, material things are unimportant, and selfishness −− or even the self −− illusory”
“One common expedient, for example, was the use of tally−sticks, notched pieces of wood that were broken in two as records of debt, with half being kept by the creditor, half by the debtor”
“Western Europe was, as in so many things, a relative late−comer in this regard: most of the financial innovations that reached Italy and France in the 11th and 12th centuries had been in common use in Egypt or Iraq since the 8th or 9th centuries. The word "cheque", for example, derives from the Arab sakk, and appeared in English only around 1220 AD”.
Historically, ages of virtual, credit money have also involved creating some sort of overarching institutions −− Mesopotamian sacred kingship, Mosaic jubilees, Sharia or Canon Law −− that place some sort of controls on the potentially catastrophic social consequences of debt… Almost invariably, they involve institutions … to protect debtors.
CAT sobre cárteles
Este párrafo de una sentencia reciente del CAT refleja bien cómo debemos decidir cuando sancionar un cártel del que forman parte empresas que, en junto, no tienen una elevada cuota de mercado:
However, in our judgment the OFT was right to emphasise that agreements with the object of price-fixing and a collective boycott of a new entrant into the market are of their nature among the most serious kinds of infringement. Although the combined market share of the parties to the CRF was estimated by the OFT to be only “at least 13.6%”22, this was a highly fragmented market. The infringement comprised the largest players in the market: Indeed the participants were selected by the director of Hill McGlynn & Associates Ltd who organised their meeting at the outset on the basis that they were the key players in the sector and the agencies likely to be involved in Master Vendor and Neutral Vendor arrangements: In evidence called by Hays for its appeal, a director of Vinci plc testified that the participants in the infringement included the agencies whom he regarded as important for any PSL put forward.
El resto de la sentencia se ocupa, sobre todo, del modo de calcular las multas, en particular, sobre el volumen de ventas relevante (si hay que descontar o no determinados ingresos de las empresas sancionadas).
Sorprende a primera vista que un cártel que reunía a menos del 15 % del mercado pudiera tener efectos distorsionadores de la competencia. Pero, como explica bien el CAT, los miembros del mismo y la existencia de un segmento de clientes en el mercado que se relacionaban especialmente con los miembros del cártel, justifica la calificación de la conducta como especialmente grave. Por lo demás, aquí si que podemos dejarnos llevar por la presunción: si el acuerdo no podía tener efectos sobre el mercado ¿por qué se molestaron las partes en reunirse y celebrarlo en primer lugar?
VS Naipaul’s Rules for Beginners
1. Do not write long sentences. A sentence should not have more than ten or twelve words.
2. Each sentence should make a clear statement. It should add to the statement that went before. A good paragraph is a series of clear, linked statements.
3. Do not use big words. If your computer tells you that your average word is more than five letters long, there is something wrong. The use of small words compels you to think about what you are writing. Even difficult ideas can be broken down into small words.
4. Never use words whose meaning you are not sure of. If you break this rule you should look for other work.
5. The beginner should avoid using adjectives, except those of colour, size and number. Use as few adverbs as possible.
6. Avoid the abstract. Always go for the concrete.
7. Every day, for six months at least, practice writing in this way. Small words; short, clear, concrete sentences. It may be awkward, but it’s training you in the use of language. It may even be getting rid of the bad language habits you picked up at the university. You may go beyond these rules after you have thoroughly understood and mastered them.
Los pescadores arrojarán toneladas de plástico al Mediterráneo
EU unveils plans to pay fishermen to catch plastic Trial project aims to provide fleets with an alternative income source income to reduce pressure on fish stocks
Fishermen who clear plastic will be subsidised initially by EU member states, but in future the scheme could turn into a self-sustaining profitable enterprise, as fleets cash in on the increasing value of recycled plastics. Cleaning up the rubbish will also improve the prospects for fish, seabirds and other marine species, which frequently choke or suffer internal damage from ingesting small pieces of non-biodegradable packaging.
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