We first establish which external governance provisions entail trade-o¤s: a sub-set of provisions that impose a delay on potential acquirers - "delay provisions" - should have both bargaining benefits and agency costs, while other provisions - "non-delay provisions" - should only have agency costs. This leads to two main comparative static results. First, we predict a larger bargaining effect of delay provisions in concentrated industries. The intuition for this prediction is simple: In concentrated industries, targets are relatively scarce. Thus, a potential acquirer is more concerned about losing synergy opportunities to industry rivals and may be willing to bid more in order to not lose the target. However, in the absence of a credible threat such as delay provisions that afford an industry rival an opportunity to jump in the fray and make a competing bid for the target, the acquirer will not up its bid. Second, we predict that delay and non-delay provisions should have an interaction effect with industry concentration on firm value. Specifically, the valuation effect of delay provisions, while overall ambiguous, should be unambiguously less negative in concentrated industries, and potentially positive if bargaining benefits are sufficiently high. By contrast, the valuation effect of non-delay provisions should be unambiguously negative, and more so in concentrated industries if agency costs are higher.
“Reading and thinking. The beauty of doing it, is that if you’re good at it, you don’t have to do much else" Charlie Munger. "La cantidad de energía necesaria para refutar una gilipollez es un orden de magnitud mayor que para producirla" Paul Kedrosky «Nulla dies sine linea» Antonio Guarino. "Reading won't be obsolete till writing is, and writing won't be obsolete till thinking is" Paul Graham.
viernes, 6 de mayo de 2011
La bondad/maldad de las cláusulas anti-OPA
Proportionality and Principled Balancing, Aharon Barak
foto: Mosaic Magazine
En este breve trabajo, se ocupa del tercer elemento del juicio de proporcionalidad: la proporcionalidad en sentido estricto o ponderación entre la “ganancia” social de conseguir el fin público o el respeto del derecho fundamental y el “coste” para el derecho fundamental limitado por la norma o decisión pública
Claramente, comparar un "beneficio" con una "limitación" es una tarea abrumadora. Cómo se puede comparar el beneficio para la seguridad del Estado con la limitación de la libertad de expresión? Teniendo en cuenta estas dificultades, parece oportuno comenzar aclarando dos extremos: Primero, la comparación no es entre las ventajas obtenidas al realizar el objetivo en conflicto con el efecto provocado por la limitación del derecho. Tampoco es entre la seguridad y la libertad. La comparación es entre el beneficio marginal a la seguridad y el daño marginal al derecho que causa la norma o decisión restrictiva. La comparación se refiere a lo marginal; a lo incremental.
En segundo lugar, debemos preguntarnos si existe una alternativa más proporcionada que logre sólo una parte de los objetivos y sea menos restrictiva del derecho. Si efectivamente existe una alternativa más proporcional, la comparación entre el beneficio marginal y la limitación marginal se realiza teniendo en cuenta y en comparación con la alternativa proporcional...
En un lado de la balanza donde se sitúa el derecho hay que ponderar... la importancia del derecho... (y)... el alcance de su limitación, su intensidad y sus dimensiones. Una limitación de un solo derecho es menos gravoso que la limitación de varios derechos. Una limitación próxima a los márgenes del derecho difiere de una limitación que se afecta a aspectos próximos al núcleo esencial del derecho. Una limitación temporal es menos severa que una permanente. Así, las consecuencias de la limitación de un derecho humano y su efecto en los derechos afectan a la ponderación del derecho mismo.
David Graeber: historia de la deuda
(En Mesopotamia) “most actual acts of everyday buying and selling, particularly those that were not carried out between absolute strangers, appear to have been made on credit. "Ale women", or local innkeepers, served beer, for example, and often rented rooms; customers ran up a tab; normally, the full sum was dispatched at harvest time. Market vendors presumably acted as they do in small−scale markets in Africa, or Central Asia, today, building up lists of trustworthy clients to whom they could extend credit. The habit of money at interest also originates in Sumer −− it remained unknown, for example, in Egypt. Interest rates, fixed at 20 percent, remained stable for 2,000 years”.
“This, however, led to some serious social problems. In years with bad harvests especially, peasants would start becoming hopelessly indebted to the rich, and would have to surrender their farms and, ultimately, family members, in debt bondage. Gradually, this condition seems to have come to a social crisis −− not so much leading to popular uprisings, but to common people abandoning the cities and settled territory entirely and becoming semi−nomadic "bandits" and raiders. It soon became traditional for each new ruler to wipe the slate clean, cancel all debts, and declare a general amnesty or "freedom", so that all bonded labourers could return to their families. (It is significant here that the first word for "freedom" known in any human language, the Sumerian amarga, literally means "return to mother".) Biblical prophets instituted a similar custom, the Jubilee, whereby after seven years all debts were similarly cancelled. This is the direct ancestor of the New Testament notion of "redemption". As economist Michael Hudson has pointed out, it seems one of the misfortunes of world history that the institution of lending money at interest disseminated out of Mesopotamia without, for the most part, being accompanied by its original checks and balances”
“Coinage, certainly, was not invented to facilitate trade (the Phoenicians, consummate traders of the ancient world, were among the last to adopt it). It appears to have been first invented to pay soldiers, probably first of all by rulers of Lydia in Asia Minor to pay their Greek mercenaries. Carthage, another great trading nation, only started minting coins very late, and then explicitly to pay its foreign soldiers”.
“The credit systems of the Near East did not crumble under commercial competition; they were destroyed by Alexander's armies −− armies that required half a ton of silver bullion per day in wages. The mines where the bullion was produced were generally worked by slaves”.
“the creation of new media of exchange −− coinage appeared almost simultaneously in Greece, India, and China −−appears to have had profound intellectual effects. ... The most remarkable pattern, though, is the emergence, in almost the exact times and places where one also sees the early spread of coinage, of what were to become modern world religions: prophetic Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Taoism, and eventually, Islam. While the precise links are yet to be fully explored, in certain ways, these religions appear to have arisen in direct reaction to the logic of the market. To put the matter somewhat crudely: if one relegates a certain social space simply to the selfish acquisition of material things, it is almost inevitable that soon someone else will come to set aside another domain in which to preach that, from the perspective of ultimate values, material things are unimportant, and selfishness −− or even the self −− illusory”
“One common expedient, for example, was the use of tally−sticks, notched pieces of wood that were broken in two as records of debt, with half being kept by the creditor, half by the debtor”
“Western Europe was, as in so many things, a relative late−comer in this regard: most of the financial innovations that reached Italy and France in the 11th and 12th centuries had been in common use in Egypt or Iraq since the 8th or 9th centuries. The word "cheque", for example, derives from the Arab sakk, and appeared in English only around 1220 AD”.
Historically, ages of virtual, credit money have also involved creating some sort of overarching institutions −− Mesopotamian sacred kingship, Mosaic jubilees, Sharia or Canon Law −− that place some sort of controls on the potentially catastrophic social consequences of debt… Almost invariably, they involve institutions … to protect debtors.
CAT sobre cárteles
Este párrafo de una sentencia reciente del CAT refleja bien cómo debemos decidir cuando sancionar un cártel del que forman parte empresas que, en junto, no tienen una elevada cuota de mercado:
However, in our judgment the OFT was right to emphasise that agreements with the object of price-fixing and a collective boycott of a new entrant into the market are of their nature among the most serious kinds of infringement. Although the combined market share of the parties to the CRF was estimated by the OFT to be only “at least 13.6%”22, this was a highly fragmented market. The infringement comprised the largest players in the market: Indeed the participants were selected by the director of Hill McGlynn & Associates Ltd who organised their meeting at the outset on the basis that they were the key players in the sector and the agencies likely to be involved in Master Vendor and Neutral Vendor arrangements: In evidence called by Hays for its appeal, a director of Vinci plc testified that the participants in the infringement included the agencies whom he regarded as important for any PSL put forward.
El resto de la sentencia se ocupa, sobre todo, del modo de calcular las multas, en particular, sobre el volumen de ventas relevante (si hay que descontar o no determinados ingresos de las empresas sancionadas).
Sorprende a primera vista que un cártel que reunía a menos del 15 % del mercado pudiera tener efectos distorsionadores de la competencia. Pero, como explica bien el CAT, los miembros del mismo y la existencia de un segmento de clientes en el mercado que se relacionaban especialmente con los miembros del cártel, justifica la calificación de la conducta como especialmente grave. Por lo demás, aquí si que podemos dejarnos llevar por la presunción: si el acuerdo no podía tener efectos sobre el mercado ¿por qué se molestaron las partes en reunirse y celebrarlo en primer lugar?
VS Naipaul’s Rules for Beginners
1. Do not write long sentences. A sentence should not have more than ten or twelve words.
2. Each sentence should make a clear statement. It should add to the statement that went before. A good paragraph is a series of clear, linked statements.
3. Do not use big words. If your computer tells you that your average word is more than five letters long, there is something wrong. The use of small words compels you to think about what you are writing. Even difficult ideas can be broken down into small words.
4. Never use words whose meaning you are not sure of. If you break this rule you should look for other work.
5. The beginner should avoid using adjectives, except those of colour, size and number. Use as few adverbs as possible.
6. Avoid the abstract. Always go for the concrete.
7. Every day, for six months at least, practice writing in this way. Small words; short, clear, concrete sentences. It may be awkward, but it’s training you in the use of language. It may even be getting rid of the bad language habits you picked up at the university. You may go beyond these rules after you have thoroughly understood and mastered them.
Los pescadores arrojarán toneladas de plástico al Mediterráneo
EU unveils plans to pay fishermen to catch plastic Trial project aims to provide fleets with an alternative income source income to reduce pressure on fish stocks
Fishermen who clear plastic will be subsidised initially by EU member states, but in future the scheme could turn into a self-sustaining profitable enterprise, as fleets cash in on the increasing value of recycled plastics. Cleaning up the rubbish will also improve the prospects for fish, seabirds and other marine species, which frequently choke or suffer internal damage from ingesting small pieces of non-biodegradable packaging.
Lo que tiene en la cabeza… Cecilio Madero sobre disuasión y proporcionalidad
The main underlying issue about enforcement is deterrence. Ultimately, our work as competition law enforcers is to deter companies from entering into cartels. There is no perfect model of enforcement, but I believe that the EU administrative system is combining very well active enforcement with effective deterrence. Since the EU system relies on pecuniary sanctions, our fines must of course remain large – over €2.8 billion in 2010. Companies should understand that setting up a cartel does not make business sense and the fines should be set a sufficiently high level to trigger deterrence.
However the Commission does not seek to impose disproportionate fines, because our aim is not to push firms out of business. As many as 32 of the 69 companies we fined last year claimed inability to pay. We carefully looked into their financial situations and nine of them had their fines reduced, five of which were SMEs. Of course, as the economy recovers, we estimate that such instances where we grant inability-to-pay will be increasingly exceptional.
miércoles, 4 de mayo de 2011
La inteligencia de los grupos
“The average intelligence of the people in the group and the maximum intelligence of the people in the group doesn’t predict group intelligence,”
So how do you engineer groups that can problem-solve effectively? First of all, seed them with, basically, caring people. Group intelligence is correlated, Malone and his colleagues found, with the average social sensitivity — the openness, and receptiveness, to others — of a group’s constituents. The emotional intelligence of group members, in other words, serves the cognitive intelligence of the group overall. And this means that — wait for it — groups with more women tend to be smarter than groups with more men. (As Malone put it: “More females, more intelligence.”) That’s largely mediated by the researchers’ social sensitivity findings: Women tend to be more socially sensitive than men — per Science! — which means that, overall, more women = more emotional intelligence = more group intelligence.
Individual intelligence is fairly constant, and, in that, almost impossible to change. Group intelligence, though, Malone’s findings suggest, can be manipulated — and so, if you understand what makes groups smart, you can adjust their factors to make them even smarter. The age-old question in sociology is whether groups are somehow different, and greater, than the sum of their parts. And the answer, based on Malone’s and other findings, seems to be “yes.” The trick now is figuring out why that’s so, and how the mechanics of the collective may be put to productive use. Measuring group intelligence, in other words, is the first step in increasing group intelligence.
Las cinco “ces” del crédito
1. Character - which signifies the borrower‟s integrity and reputation
2. Capacity - which encompasses the ability to repay and evidence of sufficient cash flow to service the obligation
3. Capital - which is a borrower‟s net worth
4. Conditions – includes those of the borrower and the overall economy e.g. interest rates and amount of principal requested, and
5. Collateral - includes the borrower’s assets used to secure the debt.
Strischek, Dev (2009). The Five Cs of Credit. The RMA Journal, 91(8), pp. 34-38.
Tirole,
Sebastián y los nombramientos en la CMT y la CNE
STS 30 de marzo de 2010: Hay incumplimiento cuando el deudor anuncia que no piensa cumplir
“Como puso de relieve la Sentencia de 10 de octubre de 2005, seguida por la de 19 de mayo de 2008, también constituye incumplimiento – intencional – la declaración de la voluntad de no cumplir, emitida cuando la prestación aún no es exigible, si la otra parte no puede esperar razonablemente un cumplimiento futuro de quien se comporta de ese modo.
Esa es la situación que resulta de los hechos declarados probados en la sentencia recurrida, conforme a los que la ahora recurrente no ha estado dispuesta a cumplir la prestación prometida. Y no porque Lanetro SA no hubiera creado las nuevas acciones, sino porque declaró no estar obligada a hacerlo en ningún caso. La reacción de la otra parte de la relación contractual, considerando producido un incumplimiento, fue totalmente razonable y la declaración judicial atacada plenamente fundada”
martes, 3 de mayo de 2011
Competitividad y límites al crecimiento
Combining these insights provides a rule for economic growth policy: a country should remove only the most binding constraint(s). Identifying these most binding constraints is far from easy, and the framework that Dani offers provides only a roadmap on how „to confront those difficulties in a systematic way“. Essentially, you go through this process from top to bottom:
¿Debería decir cosas como estas el Comisario de Competencia?
“Competition enforcement can achieve other benefits than the efficiency of markets. In the energy cases that I mentioned our intervention not only improved competition but security of supply as well. A national market with diversified sources of energy is more robust and better protected against disruption.Indeed, this is not the only case in which competition control, in addition to achieving its primary objective of increasing consumer welfare, can also help achieve other public objectives.Another example of this is in the pharma sector. Ensuring that generic entry into pharmaceutical markets is not unlawfully delayed, in fact, has a direct effect on the prices that health systems have to pay for vital drugs. In other words, effective competition can also improve affordable access to healthcare to all citizens”.
“… in relation to the use of antitrust control as a means to improve the operation of markets is the following: regulation and antitrust enforcement have to be complementary”.
Conclusiones de Kokkot en el caso Solvay: alguna – aunque insuficiente - esperanza de garantía de los derechos de defensa en procedimientos sancionadores europeos
170. Access to the file is designed to ensure that undertakings involved in the administrative procedure which are accused of infringing the competition rules… are able to exercise their rights of defence effectively. It must enable them to acquaint themselves with the evidence in the Commission’s file so that, on the basis of that evidence, they can express their views effectively on the conclusions reached by the Commission in its statement of objections…
171. Where, in the administrative procedure, exculpatory documents have not been communicated to an undertaking concerned, that undertaking must subsequently establish only that their non-disclosure was able to influence, to its disadvantage, the course of the proceedings and the content of the decision of the Commission. (149) In this regard, it is sufficient for the undertaking to show that it would have been able to use the exculpatory documents in its defence. (150)174. As Solvay rightly points out, the purpose of access to the file is not confined to enabling the undertaking concerned to put forward new arguments or evidence in the administrative procedure. On the contrary, access to the file is also of very considerable practical interest because it enables the undertaking concerned to compare its contentions in the administrative procedure with the observations submitted by third parties – such as customers, suppliers, competitors and professional associations, for example. In particular, the undertaking concerned may, where appropriate, use many of the observations submitted by third parties to provide additional corroboration for the observations on which it has itself relied as against the Commission177. Access to the file is intended to enable the undertaking concerned to ensure its defence better (160) than it could have done by its own efforts. Because of its excessively narrow understanding of the purpose of access to the file, which does not take account of the factors just mentioned, (161) the General Court underestimated the scope of the rights of the defence in the administrative procedure and thus committed an error of law.
200. The correct approach would have been to ask only whether the missing parts of the file might have contained information which would have enabled Solvay to provide better corroboration for the arguments it had previously directed against the contested decision or to put forward new arguments altogether.
223. Moreover, the fact that the second decision imposing a fine at issue here (Decision 2003/6) was not based on any new objections does nothing to alter the Commission’s obligation to conduct a new hearing after granting access to the file. (212) It is true that Solvay had already had the opportunity in 1990 to submit its observations on all of the objections forming the basis of the Commission’s first and second decisions imposing a fine. However, it had to do so on the basis of an extremely fragmentary knowledge of the file, as it had only been sent inculpatory documents. (213)
224. The right to a hearing is not limited to a right to submit observations on all the Commission’s objections. Rather, the undertaking concerned must be afforded the opportunity to express its views in the knowledge of all legally accessible parts of the file. The rights of the defence in anti-trust proceedings would otherwise be divested of much of their effectiveness.
225. The opportunity to submit observations is of an entirely different value where the undertaking concerned has been given due access to the file beforehand. In particular, it goes without saying that an undertaking which has been given access not only to inculpatory but also to exculpatory documents can defend itself against the Commission’s objections more effectively than an undertaking which has been shown only inculpatory material.
250. In the judgment under appeal, the General Court assumed that a Commission decision may be annulled on account of excessively long proceedings only where it is established that the undue delay has adversely affected the ability of the undertakings concerned to defend themselves. (227) That approach is in line with the consistent case-law developed by the Court of Justice according to which it needs to be assessed whether the length of the proceedings may have affected their outcome. (228)
Decir que no ha habido abuso de posición dominante en el sentido del art. 102 TFUE es competencia exclusiva de la Comisión Europea
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