.
“Reading and thinking. The beauty of doing it, is that if you’re good at it, you don’t have to do much else" Charlie Munger. "La cantidad de energía necesaria para refutar una gilipollez es un orden de magnitud mayor que para producirla" Paul Kedrosky «Nulla dies sine linea» Antonio Guarino. "Reading won't be obsolete till writing is, and writing won't be obsolete till thinking is" Paul Graham.
martes, 12 de abril de 2011
No son cajas pero…
Se publica la derogación de la regulación de la concesión de automóviles
lunes, 11 de abril de 2011
Fascinante (The Economist)
Ants solve their own version using chemical signals called pheromones. When an ant finds food, she takes it back to the nest, leaving behind a pheromone trail that will attract others. The more ants that follow the trail, the stronger it becomes. The pheromones evaporate quickly, however, so once all the food has been collected, the trail soon goes cold. Moreover, this rapid evaporation means long trails are less attractive than short ones, all else being equal. Pheromones thus amplify the limited intelligence of the individual ants into something more powerful.
In 1992 Dr Dorigo and his group began developing Ant Colony Optimisation (ACO), an algorithm that looks for solutions to a problem by simulating a group of ants wandering over an area and laying down pheromones. ACO proved good at solving travelling-salesman-type problems. Since then it has grown into a whole family of algorithms, which have been applied to many practical questions. Its most successful application is in logistics. Migros, a Swiss supermarket chain, and Barilla, Italy’s leading pasta-maker, both manage their daily deliveries from central warehouse to local retailers using AntRoute. This is a piece of software developed by AntOptima, a spin-off from the Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Lugano (IDSIA), one of Europe’s leading centres for swarm intelligence. Every morning, the software’s “ants” calculate the best routes and delivery sequences, depending on the quantity of cargo, its destinations, delivery windows and available lorries. According to Luca Gambardella, the director of both ISDIA and AntOptima, it takes 15 minutes to produce a delivery plan for 1,200 trucks, even though the plan changes almost every day.
Why the EU is such a bad regulator
- las instituciones europeas no aplican esas normas. Europa no tiene mercado de valores, ni tribunales que resuelvan conflictos entre accionistas o entre empresas y consumidores, ni nada de nada. De manera que no aprenden nada.
- no hay enormes diferencias de “calidad” entre el Derecho nacional en esas materias de cada uno de los Estados miembro, de manera que se han agotado las ganancias derivadas de transferir mejores normas desde los países más desarrollados de Europa a los menos desarrollados (p. ej., en el Derecho de Sociedades entre Alemania y España). Sin embargo, algunas evoluciones de este tipo han sido desgraciadas (imperatividad de las normas sobre capital).
- la calidad de las soluciones tenderá a ser muy baja, porque es necesario poner de acuerdo a muchos interesados (lo que conduce a soluciones de compromiso que, o bien reducen el nivel de armonización –véase lo ocurrido con la Directiva de OPAS- o salen camellos con tres jorobas – morosidad - ) y, lo que es peor,
- las normas no son recomendaciones que los Estados pueden incorporar a sus derechos, sino que son imperativas para los Estados, no solo en sus líneas generales (¡eso era cuando las Directivas eran solo Directivas!) sino en cada detalle por muy insignificante que sea (v., por ejemplo, la cuestión prejudicial planteada y (mal) resuelta por el TJ en relación con una cuestión minúscula). Naturalmente, si el juez de turno se equivoca, se equivoca para siempre y para toda Europa. Y el TJ tiende a considerar que para casi cada problema hay un “concepto de Derecho europeo” que los Estados no pueden saltarse.
- los errores no se corrigen. Se perpetúan por los enormes costes de modificación y porque nunca reciben indicaciones de que las soluciones sean malas (v., punto 1º)
- cada regulación crea una burocracia europea que la defiende y cada grupo de interés encuentra en el Parlamento Europeo unos oídos dispuestos.
- la comprobación de que un Estado cumple con las directivas se hace mecánicamente (¿incorporó el Estado la Directiva, esto es, promulgó una norma para hacerlo? ¡da igual que su Derecho ya cumpliese con los objetivos de la Directiva!)
The so-called ‘Lamfalussy’ procedure, which is based on older ‘comitology’ procedures within the EU,164 starts from the premise that directives will contain only framework rules, whereas technical details will be adopted by the Commission with the help of two expert committees. Arguably, this procedure allowed lawmakers to reach consensus more easily on basic issues, whereas details are left to technocrats, less subject to populist pressure. To their supporters, the Lamfalussy procedure allows for more efficient and better-quality lawmaking, bringing in expert knowledge and saving time; to their critics, the procedure suffers from a democratic deficit…Finally, we can understand EU capital market regulation being subject to international competition with the USA for investment
Que el cargo haya caducado no permite iniciar el plazo de prescripción de la responsabilidad del administrador
…. como afirmamos en la sentencia 770/2010 de 23 de noviembre , reiterada en la repetida 96/2011 de 15 de febrero : 1) No puede identificarse la publicidad del tiempo por el que los administradores han sido designados con la publicidad de la caducidad del cargo, ya que ésta es un efecto que no tiene por qué ser conocido por legos que tan solo conocerán el tiempo para el que fue designado el administrador, pero no las consecuencias que derivan de su transcurso. 2) No puede equipararse la "caducidad del cargo" con el "cese efectivo", ya que son dos cosas diferentes y nada impide que el administrador continúe de hecho una vez transcurrido el plazo previsto en el artículo 126 del texto refundido de la Ley de Sociedades Anónimas en las fechas en las que se desarrollaron los hechos, y hoy en el artículo 221.2 del Texto Refundido de la Ley de Sociedades de Capital
Las familias gestionan mejor cuando gestionan la empresa que fundaron y no la que adquirieron
Stewardship benefits accrue for several reasons, including that founding families often have their names on the business, may perceive their personal satisfaction and public reputation as being tied to the business, and may intend to pass on the business to future family generations… stewardship benefits accrue to those firms that are still controlled by members of the founding family, who are less likely to engage in practices that would result in reporting lower-quality earnings. This causes family ownership to have beneficial effects on accounting practices. In the absence of stewardship benefits, such as in the case of family firms who are controlled by non-founding families, severe agency conflicts arising due to concentrated ownership and control over the board of directors erode the beneficial effects of family ownership, resulting in poor accounting practices… we find that family firms exhibit a lower earnings quality than non-family firms after controlling for the use of devices that separate cash-flow rights and voting rights, size, profitability and other firm-level variables. However… founding-family firms exhibit a higher earnings quality than non-founding-family firms.
Theories of family control can be classified into two broad explanations, which we refer to as “competitive advantage” and “private benefits of control.” Under the competitive advantage hypothesis, value is maximized for both family and nonfamily shareholders (Bertrand and Schoar, 2006). Under the private benefits of control hypothesis, value is maximized only for the family, who expropriates nonfamily investors… The distinction is particularly relevant for the central research question in this paper, since the reasons for acquiring control may differ from the reasons for retaining control, and the reasons for retaining control, or at least ownership, of companies may differ across founding and nonfounding families. For instance, because founding families are likely to experience considerable emotional attachment to their companies, their commitment to the company may be greater, and their investment horizons longer, than those of nonfounding families—two potential sources of competitive advantage. On the other hand, founding families may be more inclined to appoint their descendants as company CEOs, potentially a form of private benefits appropriation…. A lower sensitivity of family control to positive shocks would be consistent with a tunneling (i.e., private benefits appropriation) explanation. Conversely, a lower sensitivity to negative shocks would be consistent with a competitive advantage explanation. As Friedman, Johnson, and Mitton (2003) argue, controlling shareholders, such as families, may use their private funds to “prop up” (i.e., provide temporary support) to financially troubled firms, thereby benefiting minority shareholders in those companies. Propping is thus the opposite of tunneling. In other words, families may not always act in their own interest but instead seek to maximize value for the firm as a whole. By doing so when there is an industry downturn, families can make their firms more resilient, thereby putting them in a stronger competitive position relative to nonfamily firms in the industry.As a second test, we measure, for each industry, the premium or discount at which family firms trade relative to nonfamily firms in the industry, and estimate the average and median “family premium or discount” across all industries in our sample. The finding of an average premium would be consistent with a competitive advantage explanation, whereas a discount would be consistent with a private benefit of control explanation.When founders and their families are in control, the competitive advantage explanation dominates. However, when nonfounding families and individual blockholders are in control, the private benefits explanation governs. In other words, while all types of controlling families and individuals seek to maximize value for themselves, only founding families are willing and able to maximize value for all shareholders.
¿España la próxima rescatada?
“What the parties may do, the arbitrator as their mutual agent may do”
Easterbrook rests his opinion on agency theory. Arbitrators are agents of the parties, hired to resolve a dispute, and hence ought to be able to exercise powers delegated to them by their principals. So long as the principals have the ability to exercise a certain power, they can delegate the power by contract to an agent. As Easterbrook points out, if Watts and Tiffany had agreed to settle their differences without Tiffany paying Watts’ legal fees, the law could scarcely intervene. When the arbitrator‐agent issues a decision to the same effect, why should the law revisit that decision? As Easterbrook succinctly put it, “What the parties may do, the arbitrator as their mutual agent may do.
domingo, 10 de abril de 2011
Citas
La idea de una conexión conceptual entre la propiedad y la libertad está presente como un tópico de uso habitual en el pensamiento jurídico centroeuropeo. La protección constitucional de la propiedad está —se dice, incluso «estrechamente»— vinculada con la defensa de una vertiente patrimonial del libre desarrollo de la personalidad, con la posibilidad de contar con un presupuesto patrimonial indispensable para configurar la vida personal libremente y de desplegar la libertad en los ámbitos de la actividad económica (trabajo y libertad de empresa). Resulta llamativo que esa conexión esté por completo ausente de más de 25 años de jurisprudencia constitucional española. En el orden de las ideas, quizás fuera esa falta de una conexión sólida entre la libertad y la propiedad en nuestra conciencia jurídica lo que terminó convirtiéndose en regla constitucional que excluía este derecho del recurso de amparo.
… democracy is the only institution capable of self reforming; autocracies are not and it is why, when they meet an obstacle, they usually break down… the theory that capitalism has survived as a dominant form of economic organisation only thanks to democracy rather than in spite of it, intuitively appears to be far more compelling If the outcome of the regime is a systematically unfair devolution of income, wealth and positions, à la longue, people will revoltIn the name of what supposed efficiency are people being obliged to give up their political rights or to show a lesser degree of solidarity than they wish to display?The relationships between democracy and the market are thus more complementary than a conflicting. By preventing market-based exclusion, democracy increases the legitimacy of the economic system, and the market makes for a greater level of backing for democracy, by limiting political control over people’s lives. Accordingly, each of the principles governing the political and economic realms is limited and is also legitimised by the other.
El green paper de la Comisión sobre gobierno corporativo ¡por Dios que no hagan nada!
there is evidence that the majority of shareholders are passive and are often only focused on short-term profits.
It therefore seems useful to consider whether more shareholders can be encouraged to take an interest in sustainable returns and longer-term performance, and how to encourage them to be more active on corporate governance issues.
So the question is whether any EU action is needed on corporate governance in unlisted companies.
Therefore, the Commission believes that it is primarily long-term investors who have an interest in engagement
sábado, 9 de abril de 2011
El problema del “ruido” en la información pública de las empresas
We have used the term ‘clutter’ as comprising two problem areas:• immaterial disclosures that inhibit the ability to identify and understand relevant information; and • explanatory information that remains unchanged from year to year.
Immaterial disclosures are remarkably common, for example detailed notes supporting line items that are small – often the case for share-based payments. However, reports also contain explanatory narrative information that is either wholly or largely unchanged from year to year. It is the changes that can often be illuminating but, without comparing the precise text, it is often diffi cult to identify them.
Only ı8 of the 52 provisions of the UK Corporate Governance Code (the Code) require disclosure to demonstrate compliance.For the other 34 provisions, companies are only required to report when they do not comply, and explain why. Despite the ‘comply or explain’ philosophy at the heart of the Code, practice seems to be to explain everything.Many companies tell us that they are responding to others’ demands. They feel under pressure to report against each provision of the Code because of proxy voting services and other analysts who compile checklist based score sheets to assess governance compliance. Our research has shown that often these additional disclosures take the form of simply repeating the wording of the relevant Code provisions each year. One effect is that they can detract attention from those parts of the governance section that are of most importance to investors, as well as adding to its length. In particular, it makes it much harder for readers to identify the more relevant company-specifi c information about governance issues and practice.
El socio, administrador y prestamista: deber de lealtad hacia la sociedad
It was after the dot-com bubble burst, and only a few months before Cadant was sold to the Arris Group for $55 million, that a similar company, River Delta, was sold for $300 million. Cadant couldn’t hold out for a comparable deal because of the terms of the bridge loans. If the plaintiff’s evidence is credited, Copeland, in cahoots with an employee of J.P. Morgan named Charles Walker (a defendant), used information gleaned from meetings of Cadant’s board to reveal to J.P. Morgan and through it to Venrock that Cadant would accept a smaller bridge loan, and for a shorter term, than Venrock and J.P. Morgan would have expected the board to insist on. Walker himself joined Cadant’s board soon after the first bridge loan was made, as did another J.P. Morgan employee (Stephan Oppenheimer), who is also a defendant. There is evidence that Copeland, Walker, and Oppenheimer conspired to ensure that Cadant would accept the second bridge loan, which added to the disadvantages to Cadant of the first loan by creating a generous liquidation preference; as mentioned earlier, in the event of a sale or liquidation of Cadant, Venrock and J.P. Morgan would be entitled to be paid twice the amount of their investment in the company, to the prejudice of the common shareholders… Uncontaminated by disloyal directors, so far as appears, River Delta, in adverse economic conditions similar to those alleged to have beset Cadant, nevertheless was sold for more than five times what Cadant was sold for a few months later… The accusation is that the directors were disloyal. They persuaded the district judge that disclosure of a conflict of interest excuses a breach of fiduciary duty. It does not. It just excuses the conflict. To have a conflict and to be motivated by it to breach a duty of loyalty are two different things—the first a factor increasing the likelihood of a wrong, the second the wrong itself…. A director may tell his fellow directors that he has a conflict of interest but that he will not allow it to influence his actions as director; he will not tell them he plans to screw them. If having been informed of the conflict the disinterested directors decide to continue to trust and rely on the interested ones, it is because they think that despite the conflict of interest those directors will continue to serve the corporation loyally. Benihana of Tokyo, Inc. v. Benihana, Inc., 906 A.2d 114 (Del. 2006), a derivative suit much like this one, provides an illuminating contrast to this case. A director was interested but his interest was known to the board. Having settled that point, the court went on to consider whether he had breached his fiduciary duty to the corporation, and concluded that he had not. He “did not set the terms of the [challenged] deal; he did not deceive the board; and he did not dominate or control the other directors’ approval of the Transaction. In short, the record does not support the claim that [he] breached his duty of loyalty.”
viernes, 8 de abril de 2011
Good faith and fiduciary duty
I distinguish good faith and fiduciary duties by showing that good faith provides a framework for tailored gap-filling by enabling courts to provide the term most suitable to the agreement in question, while fiduciary duties are untailored defaults that provide the regime that most parties in a fiduciary category would have wanted. This claim has not yet been advanced in the literature on good faith and fiduciary duties… While a tailored provision aims to supply precisely the terms the parties would have contracted for, an untailored provision supplies the parties with a “single, off-the-rack standard that in some sense represents what the majority of contracting parties would want.”13 Here I argue that good faith and fiduciary duties are tailored and untailored standards, respectively.1
“When transactions costs reach a particularly high level, some persons start calling some contractual relations ‘fiduciary… In this context, incomplete contract situations characterized by unusually high costs of specification and monitoring may give rise to fiduciary duties. On the contrary, good faith is the canon of interpretation for ordinary contracts…
it does not specify what distinguishes good faith and fiduciary duties as gap-filling methods
“when one party hires the other’s knowledge and expertise, there is not much they can write down.”
“Good faith is thus no more than a residual method of gap-filling, one that fill gaps based on hints provided by the contract’s express terms
jueves, 7 de abril de 2011
El bachillerato de excelencia o el mundo al revés
Dados los anteriores problemas con las bases de datos, un reciente estudio de Duflo, Dupas y Kremer resulta muy útil. Estos autores comparan 61 colegios keniatas donde los estudiantes fueron asignados aleatoriamente a un aula de primer curso con otros 60 colegios donde los alumnos fueron agrupados en función de su rendimiento inicial. La calificación de los estudiantes de colegios con alumnado agrupado fue 0,14 desviaciones típicas superior (tras 18 meses) a la de los niños en colegios sin alumnado agrupado, y el efecto se mantuvo tras la finalización del programa. Lo más interesante es destacar que los alumnos de todos los niveles de capacidad se beneficiaron del agrupamiento por capacidades. Dado que el mismo estudio (como muchos otros) también revela que el efecto directo de tener compañeros más capaces es positivo, parece claro el agrupamiento tiene dos efectos. Por un lado la separación priva a los alumnos menos avanzados del contacto beneficioso con los mejores. Pero por otro lado permite a los profesores modular mejor el ritmo de la clase de cuando ésta es más homogénea. En algunos, casos, como el de estas escuelas de Kenya, el efecto de la mejor adaptación es mayor que el de tener compañeros de clase brillantes.
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