“The Tyranny of Collateral… The romantics among us cannot, or do not want to, recognize the logic of this economic transaction (el préstamo con garantía real). They castigate Shylock when he comes for his pound of flesh but do not see that this is the collateral that enabled the merchant of Venice to borrow. Furthermore, a dispassionate economic transaction is marred by the vile nature of (who else?) the financier and his hatred for the borrower. The logic, however, is impeccable. The borrower in need is prepared to sacrifice something valuable in order to obtain finance. In fact, were it not for the gruesome nature of the collateral and the prior strained relationship between the contracting parties, the collateral would be perfect. The lender has better use for money than for the pound of the borrower’s flesh and would not collect unless the borrower defaulted. The borrower values his flesh immensely and would not default lightly. It is important that Shylock hate the merchant, else he would not want to collect on the pound of flesh, and the threat to collect it would not be credible”. RAJAN/ZINGALES, Saving Capitalism, pp 30-31 y nota 5 p 316.
lunes, 11 de octubre de 2010
La jurisprudencia de la avaricia
Matt Ridley: ¡es la energía barata!
I would argue forcefully that the record shows quite clearly that the thing that always causes innovation is trade, because it encourages specialization. When networks of exchanging human beings grow dense enough, technology advances… I am saying that there have always been liberals, who want to be free to trade in ideas as well as things, and there have always been predators, who want to extract rents by force if necessary. The grand theme of history is how the crushing dominance of the latter has repeatedly stifled the former. As Joel Mokyr puts it: “Prosperity and success led to the emergence of predators and parasites in various forms and guises who eventually slaughtered the geese that laid the golden eggs.” The wonder of the last 200 years is not the outbreak of liberalism, but the fact that it has so far fought off the rent-seeking predators by the skin of its teeth: the continuing triumph of the Bourgeoisie.the more I study the Industrial Revolution’s failure to peter out, the more convinced I become that energy is crucial. Hear me out. Or rather, hear out Robert Allen, professor of economic history at Oxford, whose new book The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, is a tour de force… The point is that fossil fuels were the only power source that did not show diminishing returns. In sharp contrast to wood, water and wind, the more you mined them the cheaper they became. Energy amplifies human work, and Britain found itself able to amplify the productivity of its labor long after its population and its technology would have exhausted all other sources of power. Fossil fuels therefore kept the innovation machine running so that profits from commerce just kept ahead of profits from piracyBritain’s success in the 1700s was caused by London, and London’s success was caused by trade. Like Tyre, Athens, Venice and Amsterdam, London did exchange and specialization with the world, got rich and — thanks to the Reformation and the Glorious Revolution — kept the pirates (chiefs, priests, and thieves) at bay. That drove up its wages, which spurred on labor-saving innovation in machinery. “The coal trade took off,” says Allen, “when London got big enough to drive the price of wood fuel high enough to make it profitable to mine coal in Northumberland and ship it to London.” That mining then created abundant cheap energy in northern districts, which rewarded inventors of steam engines…Not only did this coal get cheaper and cheaper the more that was mined, but machines grew more and more effective at turning its heat into work. “The cheap energy economy,” says Allen, “was the foundation of Britain’s economic success.” As Gregory Clark has reminded us, it was only in the nineteenth century, when fossil fuels amplified human labor, that wages really began to rise. The rest of the world then borrowed this innovation — fossil energy — and its ability to produce increasing returns through new technology. Today the average citizen of planet earth uses fossil energy equivalent to having 150 slaves working continuous eight-hour shifts on his or her behalf. That is why we are all so rich and that is why per capita economic growth turned upwards so sharply after 1800
El futuro visto por un abogado alemán convertido en inversor estadounidense en tecnología WSJ
"All sorts of things are possible in a world where you have massive progress in technology and related gains in productivity," he says. "In a world where wealth is growing, you can get away with printing money. Doubling the debt over the next 20 years is not a problem."
"This is where [today is] very different from the 1930s. In the '30s, the Keynesian stuff worked at least in the sense that you could print money without inflation because there was all this productivity growth happening. That's not going to work today.
"The people who bought subprime houses in Miami were betting on technological progress. They were betting on energy prices coming down and living standards going up." They were betting, in short, on the productivity gains to make our debts affordable.
"People don't want to believe that technology is broken. . . . Pharmaceuticals, robotics, artificial intelligence, nanotechnology—all these areas where the progress has been a lot more limited than people think. And the question is why."
In true macro sense, he sees that failure as central to our current fiscal fix. Credit is about the future, he says, and a credit crisis is when the future turns out not as expected. Our policy leaders, though, have yet to see this bigger picture. "Bernanke, Geithner, Summers—you may not agree with the them ideologically, but they're quite good as macroeconomists go," Mr. Thiel says. "But the big variable that they're betting on is that there's all this technological progress happening in the background. And if that's wrong, it's just not going to work. You will not get this incredible, self-sustaining recovery.
And President Obama? "I'm not sure I'd describe him as a socialist. I might even say he has a naive and touching faith in capitalism. He believes you can impose all sorts of burdens on the system and it will still work."
The system is telling him otherwise. Mankind, says Mr. Thiel, has no inalienable right to the progress that has characterized the last 200 years. Today's heightened political acrimony is but a foretaste of the "grim Malthusian" politics ahead, with politicians increasingly trying to redistribute the fruits of a stagnant economy, loosing even more forces of stagnation.
Question: How can anyone know science and technology are under-performing compared to potential? It's hard, he admits. Those who know—"university professors, the entrepreneurs, the venture capitalists"—are "biased" in favor of the idea that rapid progress is happening, he says, because they're raising money. "The other 98%"—he means you and me, who in this age of specialization treat science and technology as akin to magic—"don't know anything."
But look, he says, at the future we once portrayed for ourselves in "The Jetsons." We don't have flying cars. Space exploration is stalled. There are no undersea cities. Household robots do not cater to our needs. Nuclear power "we should be building like crazy," he says, but we're sitting on our hands.
… The great exception is information technology, whose rapid advance is no fluke: "So far computers and the Internet have been the one sector immune from excessive regulation."…
With faster innovation, it would be easier to dig out of our hole. With enough robots, even Social Security and Medicare become affordable.
Peter Thiel"In China and India," he says, "there's no need for any innovation. Their business model for the next 20 years is copy the West." The West, he says, needs to do "new things."
El problema, a corto plazo y a largo plazo
The bottom line here is that Spain’s real commitment to meet its targets is still on trial. Pressure from financial markets may well mean that the fiscal effort made in the second half of the year will be much greater than that in the first, but all in all, achieving the 6% target for 2011 looks to be an extraordinarily difficult task, given everything we have seen so far. As one investor put it recently “We are still skeptical as to whether they will really take all the austerity measures or only go as far as the market forces them, and when pressure abates they’ll let the deficit slip again. It seems they want to do as little as needed to relax the markets.”
And, of course, if all this wasn’t enough, even if the fiscal effort is made as the government is promising, this still doesn’t solve the deep-seated underlying problem. Just what is the plan to put sufficient dynamism back into the Spanish economy in order to produce those lovely growth numbers that we would all so much like to see?
domingo, 10 de octubre de 2010
Una acción – un voto y pirámides
“For a number of decades (british) company law… provided a capped voting default rule. UK company legislation has traditionally had a statutory set of articles of association known as Table A that govern if a company lacks its own set of articles. From 1862 to 1906, Table A contanied a clause imposing restrictions on voting rights when a shareholder owned 10 or more shares and again when a shareholder owned 100 or more shares”. Nevertheless this arrangement was not the norm in publicly traded UK companies”.
La otra forma de alterar la proporcionalidad entre participación en el capital y derecho de voto es la de crear un grupo de sociedades en forma de pirámide
During the 1920s and 1930s in the United States, most of the public utility industry was organized in pyramid form. A small number of top holding companies, through one or more layers of intermediate holding companies, controlled a large portion of the nation’s operating electric and gas utilities. In 1935, Congress enacted the Public Utility Holding Company Act (“HCA”), which limited holding companies to owning a single, geographically contiguous operating system and prohibited more than a single holding company tier atop any operating company.
The value of both controlling and controlled companies fall (rise) by statistically and economically significant amounts around the time of several key votes indicating a higher (lower) likelihood that pyramid structures would be banned.
The controlling companies, on average, lose more value than do controlled companies from the enactment of the HCA (lo que indica que había razones de eficiencia pero también de transferencia de recursos detrás de esta forma organizativa). There is also evidence that companies whose controlling shareholders have high cash flow rights lose less than those in which controlling shareholders have low cash flow rights, which is consistent with value diversion by the controlling shareholder
Some holding company systems were highly leveraged and, in the economic conditions of 1935, their operating subsidiaries may have been worth less than the holding company’s outstanding debts. So long as the system could generate sufficient cash flow to service those debts,however, the holding company had a real option to continue until economic conditions improved. (Pero si entraba en vigor la Ley y la pirámide debía ser desmontada, la holding se veía obligada a liquidarse) A forced liquidation extinguishes that option because, by hypothesis, the holding company’s creditors receive all of the operating company stock or the proceeds of its sale. A holding company system with little or no debt, by contrast, holds an “in the money” option that it could profitably “exercise” by paying its debts and distributing the bulk of the stock of its subsidiaries to its own equity holders.
Masulis, Ronald W., Pham, Peter Kien and Zein, Jason, Family Business Groups around the World: Financing Advantages, Control Motivations and Organizational Choices La idea de que las pirámides son una forma eficiente de financiación es la conclusión de este estudioWe find that only a fraction of the cash made available to dominant owners is actually paid out to them, with a substantial part retained within the pyramidal structure. Crucially, the fraction retained in each holding company in the pyramidal structure increases in the importance of debt service in that holding company
Across various lines of analysis, our evidence consistently indicates that the continuing prevalence of family groups and their choice of organizational structures reflect not only control motivations, but also their ability to support high-risk, capital intensive firms that could otherwise find it difficult to attract external funding, especially in weak capital markets… rather than being the reason for the creation of pyramids, the separation of cash-flow and control rights emerges as a consequence of the family’s optimal funding choice… group structures facilitate reputation building. Khanna and Palepu (2000) observe that a group’s track record in establishing, managing, and/or monitoring multiple firms, substitutes for underdeveloped investor protection regulations. In a multi-period model, Gomes (2000) argues that a family can build a reputation for treating minorities well by retaining large shareholdings and voluntarily bearing the cost of underdiversification. This is a credible commitment because the family will repeatedly need to raise capital, and any expropriation will be penalized by discounts of its future stock offerings… non-expropriating controlling family derives payoff mainly from future sales of shares. Hence the ability to subsequently divest shares without losing control actually improves the credibility of the family’s initial ownership retention signal. Las pirámides are especially advantageous in markets with restricted capital availability and for firm types with extensive funding needs… the pyramidal structure serves an important function of leveraging a group’s available internal funds to support its more capital-intensive member firms
However, Almeida and Wolfenzon (2006b) argue that such internal capital advantages, while beneficial for member firms, do not always translate into economy-wide allocative efficiency because in certain instances, a group may choose to internally fund enterprises that are inefficient relative to the investment opportunities offered by other independent firms competing for funds. Thus, an important implication of our analysis is that improvements in capital availability can weaken the financing advantages of family groups. For emerging markets in particular, openness to foreign investment and the development of a venture capital industry can provide new avenues of competition to established business groups by offering alternative funding sources for capitalintensive and high-growth ventures, thereby seriously eroding the value of their support to member firms and weakening their overall economic dominance
viernes, 8 de octubre de 2010
Más multas a los que venden barato
Proceso monitorio
Queda así limitado el objeto del recurso a una cuestión jurídica: si puede o no aportarse esa prueba documental en el acto del juicio subsiguiente al monitorio al que se ha puesto fin tras oponerse el requerido de pago. Ciertamente el artículo 265.1.1º LEC impone la obligación de presentar con la demanda o contestación los documentos en los que las partes funden su derecho, y el contrato que vincula a las partes (de telefonía móvil) es la base de la pretensión de la actora. Ahora bien, el proceso monitorio tiene normas específicas, pues no se inicia por demanda, sino por "petición" del acreedor (art. 814 LEC ), a la que no se exige que se acompañen los documentos en los que las partes funden sus derechos, sino los referidos por el art. 812 , que son aquellos de los que resulte una buena apariencia jurídica de la deuda y que pueden ser incluso de elaboración individual por parte del acreedor. Es la oposición del deudor la que transforma ese proceso especial en uno ordinario, por lo que será en el declarativo que sigue donde se ha de cumplir con los requisitos generales (los del art. 265 ). Si dicho procedimiento subsiguiente es el verbal, será en el acto del juicio en el que el actor ha de aportar toda la documentación sustentadora de su derecho y ello es lo que ha tenido lugar en el presente caso
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